Auto merge of #25384 - steveklabnik:rollup, r=steveklabnik

- Successful merges: #25308, #25360, #25363, #25365, #25371, #25372, #25376, #25379, #25382
- Failed merges:

Author: bors

src/doc/reference.md

@@ -1346,6 +1346,8 @@ vtable when the trait is used as a [trait object](#trait-objects).
 Traits are implemented for specific types through separate
 [implementations](#implementations).
 
+Consider the following trait:
+
 ```
 # type Surface = i32;
 # type BoundingBox = i32;
@@ -1360,6 +1362,20 @@ This defines a trait with two methods. All values that have
 `draw` and `bounding_box` methods called, using `value.bounding_box()`
 [syntax](#method-call-expressions).
 
+Traits can include default implementations of methods, as in:
+
+```
+trait Foo {
+    fn bar(&self);
+
+    fn baz(&self) { println!("We called baz."); }
+}
+```
+
+Here the `baz` method has a default implementation, so types that implement
+`Foo` need only implement `bar`. It is also possible for implementing types
+to override a method that has a default implementation.
+
 Type parameters can be specified for a trait to make it generic. These appear
 after the trait name, using the same syntax used in [generic
 functions](#generic-functions).
@@ -1372,6 +1388,35 @@ trait Seq<T> {
 }
 ```
 
+It is also possible to define associated types for a trait. Consider the
+following example of a `Container` trait. Notice how the type is available
+for use in the method signatures:
+
+```
+trait Container {
+    type E;
+    fn empty() -> Self;
+    fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
+}
+```
+
+In order for a type to implement this trait, it must not only provide
+implementations for every method, but it must specify the type `E`. Here's
+an implementation of `Container` for the standard library type `Vec`:
+
+```
+# trait Container {
+#     type E;
+#     fn empty() -> Self;
+#     fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
+# }
+impl<T> Container for Vec<T> {
+    type E = T;
+    fn empty() -> Vec<T> { Vec::new() }
+    fn insert(&mut self, x: T) { self.push(x); }
+}
+```
+
 Generic functions may use traits as _bounds_ on their type parameters. This
 will have two effects: only types that have the trait may instantiate the
 parameter, and within the generic function, the methods of the trait can be
@@ -3470,13 +3515,21 @@ more of the closure traits:
 
 ### Trait objects
 
-Every trait item (see [traits](#traits)) defines a type with the same name as
-the trait. This type is called the _trait object_ of the trait. Trait objects
-permit "late binding" of methods, dispatched using _virtual method tables_
-("vtables"). Whereas most calls to trait methods are "early bound" (statically
-resolved) to specific implementations at compile time, a call to a method on an
-trait objects is only resolved to a vtable entry at compile time. The actual
-implementation for each vtable entry can vary on an object-by-object basis.
+In Rust, a type like `&SomeTrait` or `Box<SomeTrait>` is called a _trait object_.
+Each instance of a trait object includes:
+
+ - a pointer to an instance of a type `T` that implements `SomeTrait`
+ - a _virtual method table_, often just called a _vtable_, which contains, for
+   each method of `SomeTrait` that `T` implements, a pointer to `T`'s
+   implementation (i.e. a function pointer).
+
+The purpose of trait objects is to permit "late binding" of methods. A call to
+a method on a trait object is only resolved to a vtable entry at compile time.
+The actual implementation for each vtable entry can vary on an object-by-object
+basis.
+
+Note that for a trait object to be instantiated, the trait must be
+_object-safe_. Object safety rules are defined in [RFC 255][rfc255].
 
 Given a pointer-typed expression `E` of type `&T` or `Box<T>`, where `T`
 implements trait `R`, casting `E` to the corresponding pointer type `&R` or

src/doc/trpl/README.md

@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ data, we call the `clone()` method. In this example, `y` is no longer a referenc
 to the vector stored in `x`, but a copy of its first element, `"Hello"`. Now
 that we don’t have a reference, our `push()` works just fine.
 
-[move]: move-semantics.html
+[move]: ownership.html#move-semantics
 
 If we truly want a reference, we need the other option: ensure that our reference
 goes out of scope before we try to do the mutation. That looks like this:

src/doc/trpl/dining-philosophers.md

@@ -450,7 +450,7 @@ which blocks execution until the thread has completed execution. This ensures
 that the threads complete their work before the program exits.
 
 If you run this program, you’ll see that the philosophers eat out of order!
-We have mult-threading!
+We have multi-threading!
 
 ```text
 Gilles Deleuze is eating.

src/doc/trpl/error-handling.md

@@ -181,6 +181,8 @@ match version {
 This function makes use of an enum, `ParseError`, to enumerate the various
 errors that can occur.
 
+The [`Debug`](../std/fmt/trait.Debug.html) trait is what lets us print the enum value using the `{:?}` format operation.
+
 # Non-recoverable errors with `panic!`
 
 In the case of an error that is unexpected and not recoverable, the `panic!`

src/doc/trpl/the-stack-and-the-heap.md

@@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ Rust programs use [jemalloc][jemalloc] for this purpose.
 Anyway, back to our example. Since this memory is on the heap, it can stay
 alive longer than the function which allocates the box. In this case, however,
 it doesn’t.[^moving] When the function is over, we need to free the stack frame
-for `main()`. `Box<T>`, though, has a trick up its sleve: [Drop][drop]. The
+for `main()`. `Box<T>`, though, has a trick up its sleeve: [Drop][drop]. The
 implementation of `Drop` for `Box` deallocates the memory that was allocated
 when it was created. Great! So when `x` goes away, it first frees the memory
 allocated on the heap:

src/libcollections/vec.rs

@@ -18,39 +18,41 @@
 //! You can explicitly create a `Vec<T>` with `new()`:
 //!
 //! ```
-//! let xs: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
+//! let v: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();
 //! ```
 //!
 //! ...or by using the `vec!` macro:
 //!
 //! ```
-//! let ys: Vec<i32> = vec![];
+//! let v: Vec<i32> = vec![];
 //!
-//! let zs = vec![1i32, 2, 3, 4, 5];
+//! let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
+//!
+//! let v = vec![0; 10]; // ten zeroes
 //! ```
 //!
 //! You can `push` values onto the end of a vector (which will grow the vector as needed):
 //!
 //! ```
-//! let mut xs = vec![1i32, 2];
+//! let mut v = vec![1, 2];
 //!
-//! xs.push(3);
+//! v.push(3);
 //! ```
 //!
 //! Popping values works in much the same way:
 //!
 //! ```
-//! let mut xs = vec![1i32, 2];
+//! let mut v = vec![1, 2];
 //!
-//! let two = xs.pop();
+//! let two = v.pop();
 //! ```
 //!
 //! Vectors also support indexing (through the `Index` and `IndexMut` traits):
 //!
 //! ```
-//! let mut xs = vec![1i32, 2, 3];
-//! let three = xs[2];
-//! xs[1] = xs[1] + 5;
+//! let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3];
+//! let three = v[2];
+//! v[1] = v[1] + 5;
 //! ```
 
 #![stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]

src/libcore/macros.rs

@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ macro_rules! try {
     })
 }
 
-/// Use the `format!` syntax to write data into a buffer of type `&mut Writer`.
+/// Use the `format!` syntax to write data into a buffer of type `&mut Write`.
 /// See `std::fmt` for more information.
 ///
 /// # Examples

src/librustc/diagnostics.rs

@@ -427,8 +427,8 @@ be taken.
 
 E0271: r##"
 This is because of a type mismatch between the associated type of some
-trait (e.g. T::Bar, where T implements trait Quux { type Bar; })
-and another type U that is required to be equal to T::Bar, but is not.
+trait (e.g. `T::Bar`, where `T` implements `trait Quux { type Bar; }`)
+and another type `U` that is required to be equal to `T::Bar`, but is not.
 Examples follow.
 
 Here is a basic example:

src/librustc_resolve/diagnostics.rs

@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ Imports (`use` statements) are not allowed after non-item statements, such as
 variable declarations and expression statements.
 
 Here is an example that demonstrates the error:
+
 ```
 fn f() {
     // Variable declaration before import
@@ -33,6 +34,7 @@ The solution is to declare the imports at the top of the block, function, or
 file.
 
 Here is the previous example again, with the correct order:
+
 ```
 fn f() {
     use std::io::Read;
@@ -52,6 +54,7 @@ The name chosen for an external crate conflicts with another external crate that
 has been imported into the current module.
 
 Wrong example:
+
 ```
 extern crate a;
 extern crate crate_a as a;
@@ -61,6 +64,7 @@ The solution is to choose a different name that doesn't conflict with any
 external crate imported into the current module.
 
 Correct example:
+
 ```
 extern crate a;
 extern crate crate_a as other_name;
@@ -71,6 +75,7 @@ E0260: r##"
 The name for an item declaration conflicts with an external crate's name.
 
 For instance,
+
 ```
 extern crate abc;