merging all conflicts

Author: iliakan

1-js/02-first-steps/04-variables/2-declare-variables/solution.md

@@ -6,7 +6,11 @@ Isso é simples:
 let ourPlanetName = "Earth";
 ```
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
 Note que poderíamos usar um nome mais curto, `planet`, mas pode não ser óbvio a que planeta se refere. É bom ser mais detalhado. Pelo menos até a variável isNotTooLong.
+=======
+Note, we could use a shorter name `planet`, but it might not be obvious what planet it refers to. It's nice to be more verbose. At least until the variable isNotTooLong.
+>>>>>>> c56e6a57ac3497aab77128c5bfca13513980709b
 
 Em segundo lugar, o nome do visitante atual:
 

1-js/03-code-quality/06-polyfills/article.md

@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 
-# Polyfills
+# Polyfills and transpilers
 
 The JavaScript language steadily evolves. New proposals to the language appear regularly, they are analyzed and, if considered worthy, are appended to the list at <https://tc39.github.io/ecma262/> and then progress to the [specification](http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-262.htm).
 
@@ -9,23 +9,24 @@ So it's quite common for an engine to implement only the part of the standard.
 
 A good page to see the current state of support for language features is <https://kangax.github.io/compat-table/es6/> (it's big, we have a lot to study yet).
 
-## Babel
+As programmers, we'd like to use most recent features. The more good stuff - the better!
 
-When we use modern features of the language, some engines may fail to support such code. Just as said, not all features are implemented everywhere.
+From the other hand, how to make out modern code work on older engines that don't understand recent features yet?
 
-Here Babel comes to the rescue.
+There are two tools for that:
 
-[Babel](https://babeljs.io) is a [transpiler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler). It rewrites modern JavaScript code into the previous standard.
+1. Transpilers.
+2. Polyfills.
 
-Actually, there are two parts in Babel:
+Here, in this chapter, our purpose is to get the gist of how they work, and their place in web development.
 
-1. First, the transpiler program, which rewrites the code. The developer runs it on their own computer. It rewrites the code into the older standard. And then the code is delivered to the website for users. Modern project build systems like [webpack](http://webpack.github.io/) provide means to run transpiler automatically on every code change, so that it's very easy to integrate into development process.
+## Transpilers
 
-2. Second, the polyfill.
+A [transpiler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler) is a special piece of software that can parse ("read and understand") modern code, and rewrite it using older syntax constructs, so that the result would be the same.
 
-    New language features may include not only syntax constructs, but also built-in functions.
-    The transpiler rewrites the code, transforming syntax constructs into older ones. But as for new built-in functions, we need to implement them. JavaScript is a highly dynamic language, scripts may add/modify any functions, so that they behave according to the modern standard.
+E.g. JavaScript before year 2020 didn't have the "nullish coalescing operator" `??`. So, if a visitor uses an outdated browser, it may fail to understand the code like `height = height ?? 100`.
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
     There's a term "polyfill" for scripts that "fill in" the gap and add missing implementations.
 
     Two interesting polyfills are:
@@ -35,24 +36,79 @@ Actually, there are two parts in Babel:
 So, we need to setup the transpiler and add the polyfill for old engines to support modern features.
 
 If we orient towards modern engines and do not use features except those supported everywhere, then we don't need to use Babel.
+=======
+A transpiler would analyze our code and rewrite `height ?? 100` into `(height !== undefined && height !== null) ? height : 100`.
 
-## Examples in the tutorial
+```js
+// before running the transpiler
+height = height ?? 100;
 
+// after running the transpiler
+height = (height !== undefined && height !== null) ? height : 100;
+```
+>>>>>>> c56e6a57ac3497aab77128c5bfca13513980709b
 
-````online
-Most examples are runnable at-place, like this:
+Now the rewritten code is suitable for older JavaScript engines.
 
-```js run
-alert('Press the "Play" button in the upper-right corner to run');
-```
+Usually, a developer runs the transpiler on their own computer, and then deploys the transpiled code to the server.
+
+Speaking of names, [Babel](https://babeljs.io) is one of the most prominent transpilers out there. 
+
+Modern project build systems, such as [webpack](http://webpack.github.io/), provide means to run transpiler automatically on every code change, so it's very easy to integrate into development process.
+
+## Polyfills
 
-Examples that use modern JS will work only if your browser supports it.
-````
+New language features may include not only syntax constructs and operators, but also built-in functions.
 
+For example, `Math.trunc(n)` is a function that "cuts off" the decimal part of a number, e.g `Math.trunc(1.23) = 1`.
+
+In some (very outdated) JavaScript engines, there's no `Math.trunc`, so such code will fail.
+
+<<<<<<< HEAD
 ```offline
 As you're reading the offline version, examples are not runnable. But they usually work :)
 ```
 
 [Chrome Canary](https://www.google.com/chrome/browser/canary.html) is good for all examples, but other modern browsers are mostly fine too.
 
 Note that on production we can use Babel to translate the code into suitable for less recent browsers, so there will be no such limitation, the code will run everywhere.
+=======
+As we're talking about new functions, not syntax changes, there's no need to transpile anything here. We just need to declare the missing function.
+
+A script that updates/adds new functions is called "polyfill". It "fills in" the gap and adds missing implementations.
+
+For this particular case, the polyfill for `Math.trunc` is a script that implements it, like this:
+
+```js
+if (!Math.trunc) { // if no such function
+  // implement it
+  Math.trunc = function(number) {
+    // Math.ceil and Math.floor exist even in ancient JavaScript engines
+    // they are covered later in the tutorial
+    return number < 0 ? Math.ceil(number) : Math.floor(number);
+  };
+}
+```
+
+JavaScript is a highly dynamic language, scripts may add/modify any functions, even including built-in ones. 
+
+Two interesting libraries of polyfills are:
+- [core js](https://github.com/zloirock/core-js) that supports a lot, allows to include only needed features.
+- [polyfill.io](http://polyfill.io) service that provides a script with polyfills, depending on the features and user's browser.
+
+
+## Summary
+
+In this chapter we'd like to motivate you to study modern and even "bleeding-edge" langauge features, even if they aren't yet well-supported by JavaScript engines.
+
+Just don't forget to use transpiler (if using modern syntax or operators) and polyfills (to add functions that may be missing). And they'll ensure that the code works.
+
+For example, later when you're familiar with JavaScript, you can setup a code build system based on [webpack](http://webpack.github.io/) with [babel-loader](https://github.com/babel/babel-loader) plugin.
+
+Good resources that show the current state of support for various features:
+- <https://kangax.github.io/compat-table/es6/> - for pure JavaScript.
+- <https://caniuse.com/> - for browser-related functions.
+
+P.S. Google Chrome is usually the most up-to-date with language features, try it if a tutorial demo fails. Most tutorial demos work with any modern browser though.
+
+>>>>>>> c56e6a57ac3497aab77128c5bfca13513980709b

1-js/05-data-types/04-array/10-maximal-subarray/solution.md

@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ alert( getMaxSubSum([1, 2, 3]) ); // 6
 alert( getMaxSubSum([100, -9, 2, -3, 5]) ); // 100
 ```
 
-The solution has a time complexety of [O(n<sup>2</sup>)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation). In other words, if we increase the array size 2 times, the algorithm will work 4 times longer.
+The solution has a time complexity of [O(n<sup>2</sup>)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation). In other words, if we increase the array size 2 times, the algorithm will work 4 times longer.
 
 For big arrays (1000, 10000 or more items) such algorithms can lead to a serious sluggishness.
 

1-js/05-data-types/04-array/article.md

@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ arr.push("Pear"); // modify the array by reference
 alert( fruits ); // Banana, Pear - 2 items now
 ```
 
-...But what makes arrays really  special is their internal representation. The engine tries to store its elements in the contiguous memory area, one after another, just as depicted on the illustrations in this chapter, and there are other optimizations as well, to make arrays work really fast.
+...But what makes arrays really special is their internal representation. The engine tries to store its elements in the contiguous memory area, one after another, just as depicted on the illustrations in this chapter, and there are other optimizations as well, to make arrays work really fast.
 
 But they all break if we quit working with an array as with an "ordered collection" and start working with it as if it were a regular object.
 

1-js/05-data-types/08-weakmap-weakset/article.md

@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ alert(cache.size); // 1 (Ouch! The object is still in cache, taking memory!)
 
 For multiple calls of `process(obj)` with the same object, it only calculates the result the first time, and then just takes it from `cache`. The downside is that we need to clean `cache` when the object is not needed any more.
 
-If we replace `Map` with `WeakMap`, then this problem disappears. The cached result will be removed from memory automatically after the object gets garbage collected .
+If we replace `Map` with `WeakMap`, then this problem disappears. The cached result will be removed from memory automatically after the object gets garbage collected.
 
 ```js run
 // 📁 cache.js
@@ -284,7 +284,8 @@ The most notable limitation of `WeakMap` and `WeakSet` is the absence of iterati
 
 `WeakSet` is `Set`-like collection that stores only objects and removes them once they become inaccessible by other means.
 
-It's main advantages are that they have weak reference to objects, so they can easily be removed by garbage colector. 
-That comes at the cost of not having support for `clear`, `size`, `keys`, `values` ...
+Their main advantages are that they have weak reference to objects, so they can easily be removed by garbage collector.
+
+That comes at the cost of not having support for `clear`, `size`, `keys`, `values`...
 
 `WeakMap` and `WeakSet` are used as "secondary" data structures in addition to the "primary" object storage. Once the object is removed from the primary storage, if it is only found as the key of `WeakMap` or in a `WeakSet`, it will be cleaned up automatically.

1-js/06-advanced-functions/06-function-object/5-sum-many-brackets/solution.md

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 Now the code:
 
-```js run
+```js demo run
 function sum(a) {
 
   let currentSum = a;

1-js/09-classes/04-private-protected-properties-methods/article.md

@@ -96,7 +96,9 @@ class CoffeeMachine {
   _waterAmount = 0;
 
   set waterAmount(value) {
-    if (value < 0) throw new Error("Negative water");
+    if (value < 0) {
+      value = 0;
+    }
     this._waterAmount = value;
   }
 
@@ -117,7 +119,7 @@ let coffeeMachine = new CoffeeMachine(100);
 coffeeMachine.waterAmount = -10; // Error: Negative water
 ```
 
-Now the access is under control, so setting the water below zero fails.
+Now the access is under control, so setting the water amount below zero becomes impossible.
 
 ## Read-only "power"
 
@@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ class CoffeeMachine {
   _waterAmount = 0;
 
   *!*setWaterAmount(value)*/!* {
-    if (value < 0) throw new Error("Negative water");
+    if (value < 0) value = 0;
     this._waterAmount = value;
   }
 
@@ -199,12 +201,13 @@ class CoffeeMachine {
 */!*
 
 *!*
-  #checkWater(value) {
-    if (value < 0) throw new Error("Negative water");
-    if (value > this.#waterLimit) throw new Error("Too much water");
+  #fixWaterAmount(value) {
+    if (value < 0) return 0;
+    if (value > this.#waterLimit) return this.#waterLimit;
   }
 */!*
 
+<<<<<<< HEAD
   _waterAmount = 0;
 
   set waterAmount(value) {
@@ -216,14 +219,23 @@ class CoffeeMachine {
 
   get waterAmount() {
     return this.waterAmount;
+=======
+  setWaterAmount(value) {
+    this.#waterLimit = this.#fixWaterAmount(value);
+>>>>>>> c56e6a57ac3497aab77128c5bfca13513980709b
   }
 
 }
 
 let coffeeMachine = new CoffeeMachine();
 
 *!*
+<<<<<<< HEAD
 coffeeMachine.#checkWater(); // Error
+=======
+// can't access privates from outside of the class
+coffeeMachine.#fixWaterAmount(123); // Error
+>>>>>>> c56e6a57ac3497aab77128c5bfca13513980709b
 coffeeMachine.#waterLimit = 1000; // Error
 */!*
 
@@ -246,7 +258,7 @@ class CoffeeMachine {
   }
 
   set waterAmount(value) {
-    if (value < 0) throw new Error("Negative water");
+    if (value < 0) value = 0;
     this.#waterAmount = value;
   }
 }

1-js/11-async/05-promise-api/article.md

@@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ The first promise here was fastest, so it became the result. After the first set
 
 ## Promise.any
 
-Similar to `Promise.race`, but waits only for the first fulfilled promise and gets its result. If all of the given promises are rejected, then the returned promise is rejected.
+Similar to `Promise.race`, but waits only for the first fulfilled promise and gets its result. If all of the given promises are rejected, then the returned promise is rejected with [`AggregateError`](mdn:js/AggregateError) - a special error object that stores all promise errors in its `errors` property.
 
 The syntax is:
 
@@ -289,6 +289,20 @@ Promise.any([
 
 The first promise here was fastest, but it was rejected, so the second promise became the result. After the first fulfilled promise "wins the race", all further results are ignored.
 
+Here's an example when all promises fail:
+
+```js run
+Promise.any([
+  new Promise((resolve, reject) => setTimeout(() => reject(new Error("Ouch!")), 1000)),
+  new Promise((resolve, reject) => setTimeout(() => reject(new Error("Error!")), 2000))
+]).catch(error => {
+  console.log(error.constructor.name); // AggregateError
+  console.log(error.errors[0]); // Error: Ouch!
+  console.log(error.errors[1]); // Error: Error
+});
+```
+
+As you can see, error objects for failed promises are available in the `errors` property of the `AggregateError` object.
 
 ## Promise.resolve/reject
 
@@ -352,7 +366,7 @@ There are 4 static methods of `Promise` class:
     - `status`: `"fulfilled"` or `"rejected"`
     - `value` (if fulfilled) or `reason` (if rejected).
 3. `Promise.race(promises)` -- waits for the first promise to settle, and its result/error becomes the outcome.
-4. `Promise.any(promises)` -- waits for the first promise to fulfill, and its result becomes the outcome. If all of the given promises rejects, it becomes the error of `Promise.any`.
+4. `Promise.any(promises)` -- waits for the first promise to fulfill, and its result becomes the outcome. If all of the given promises are rejected, [`AggregateError`](mdn:js/AggregateError) becomes the error of `Promise.any`.
 5. `Promise.resolve(value)` -- makes a resolved promise with the given value.
 6. `Promise.reject(error)` -- makes a rejected promise with the given error.
 

1-js/99-js-misc/01-proxy/article.md

@@ -969,7 +969,7 @@ Initially, `revoke` is separate from `proxy`, so that we can pass `proxy` around
 
 We can also bind `revoke` method to proxy by setting `proxy.revoke = revoke`.
 
-Another option is to create a `WeakMap` that has `proxy` as the key the corresponding `revoke` as the value, that allows to easily find `revoke` for a proxy:
+Another option is to create a `WeakMap` that has `proxy` as the key and the corresponding `revoke` as the value, that allows to easily find `revoke` for a proxy:
 
 ```js run
 *!*

2-ui/1-document/07-modifying-document/10-clock-setinterval/solution.md

@@ -39,15 +39,19 @@ The clock-managing functions:
 ```js
 let timerId;
 
-function clockStart() { // run the clock
-  timerId = setInterval(update, 1000);
+function clockStart() { // run the clock  
+  if (!timerId) { // only set a new interval if the clock is not running
+    timerId = setInterval(update, 1000);
+  }
   update(); // (*)
 }
 
 function clockStop() {
   clearInterval(timerId);
-  timerId = null;
+  timerId = null; // (**)
 }
 ```
 
 Please note that the call to `update()` is not only scheduled in `clockStart()`, but immediately run in the line `(*)`. Otherwise the visitor would have to wait till the first execution of `setInterval`. And the clock would be empty till then.
+
+Also it is important to set a new interval in `clockStart()` only when the clock is not running. Otherways clicking the start button several times would set multiple concurrent intervals. Even worse - we would only keep the `timerID` of the last interval, losing references to all others. Then we wouldn't be able to stop the clock ever again! Note that we need to clear the `timerID` when the clock is stopped in the line `(**)`, so that it can be started again by running `clockStart()`.